From natural sorbent to functional component of the soil system: the role of glauconite in GREENODIN
From an individual mineral to managing the soil environment
Timur LEVDA
In previous publications in this series (1, 2), we examined glauconite primarily as a natural mineral and sorbent.
Experimental studies by Yu.B. Kozub and his colleagues demonstrated that the natural, unbeneficiated quartz-glauconite rock from the “Adamivka II” deposit is capable of significantly reducing the concentration of various pesticides in model aqueous solutions. The material used in the study contained up to 40% glauconite and underwent no prior beneficiation or activation.
For certain compounds, a 100% reduction in detectable concentration was achieved under the specified laboratory conditions, while for others, the reduction ranged from 50% to 88%, depending on the substance and the amount of rock applied.
At the time, these results served as a crucial starting point for me.
However, regarding the GREENODIN technology, the question that interests me is this:
What happens if we move beyond viewing glauconite merely as a sorbent and instead make it a functional element of a managed soil system?
This is precisely the next stage in the evolution of the GREENODIN approach.
What does "functional component of the soil system" mean?
Soil is not merely a mechanical mixture of sand, clay, organic matter, and fertilizers.
It is a multiphase system characterized by the simultaneous interaction of:
minerals ↔ water ↔ organic matter ↔ ions ↔ microorganisms ↔ plant roots.
Therefore, to me, a “functional component” is a material that does not simply supply a single nutrient but influences several interconnected processes.
In the case of glauconite, this potentially involves, at a minimum:
sorption and ion exchange;
reducing the mobility of certain pollutants;
gradual potassium release;
interaction with other macro- and micro-nutrients;
formation of mineral-organic interfaces;
influence on soil solution properties;
creation of a long-lasting mineral matrix in the root zone.
A recent review by Dasi, Rudmin, and Banerjee, published in *Applied Clay Science* (2024), effectively confirms this broader perspective. The authors view glauconite not only as an alternative potassium source but also as a material for restoring fertility, regulating soil properties, and creating more complex composite fertilizers. The publication is indexed in Scopus and Web of Science.
This aligns closely with the development logic behind GREENODIN.
From Patent UA No. 122904 to the modern GREENODIN concept
In 2017, I filed an application for a utility model titled “Mixture for Soil Restoration and Fertility Enhancement,” and rights under Ukrainian Patent No. 122904 came into effect on January 25, 2018.
Even then, the solution was based not on the principle of simply “supplying NPK to the plant,” but on combining organic and mineral components.
The organic component accounted for 70–80%, while the mineral portion could include bentonite, tripoli, glauconite, or combinations thereof.
This is a fundamental point.
A patent is not proof of agronomic efficacy; its function is to document a technical solution and establish authorship. Efficacy must be confirmed through trials.
However, the patent illustrates the evolution of the GREENODIN concept itself: from the early stages, I viewed the mineral component not as ballast or filler, but as an active element of the organo-mineral system.
The next step was to address the question:
which specific mineral can perform the greatest number of beneficial functions simultaneously?
Glauconite emerged as one of the most promising candidates.
In the modern GREENODIN GREEN concept, we deliberately prioritize enriched glauconite as the key mineral component. The Institute’s website already describes this approach, positioning glauconite as the “heart” of the formula—a source of potassium and trace elements, as well as a long-acting soil component.
Function 1. Glauconite as a sorption matrix
The most obvious function emerges from the work of Yu.B. Kozub.
Upon contact with an aqueous solution, glauconite rock is capable of removing specific substances from the aqueous phase. Moreover, different molecules behave differently—a fact we demonstrated in detail in a previous publication.
In our initial studies, complete reduction of the detectable concentration was achieved under certain conditions for DDT, DDVP, and select other compounds, whereas varying dose-dependent responses were observed for HCH, Tilt, Baytan, Actellic, and Decis.
However, pesticides are far from the only area of application.
Franus, Bandura, and Madej experimentally investigated natural glauconite for heavy metal removal and established the following sorption capacity sequence: Pb > Cd > Zn > Cu.
This allows us to formulate an important principle:
In the context of GREENODIN, glauconite may function not merely as a “general soil purifier,” but as a mineral surface that alters the mobility of specific substances within the soil solution.
And this distinction is of great scientific importance.
Sorption does not automatically imply the destruction of the pollutant. Therefore, remediation technologies require separate investigation into desorption, bioavailability, biodegradation, and the long-term stability of the bound substances.
Function 2. Not a one-time NPK feeding, but a slow-release mineral component.
For me, one of the most interesting properties of glauconite lies elsewhere.
Potassium is contained directly within its mineral structure; consequently, the behavior of such a source differs fundamentally from that of readily soluble potassium salts.
A field study on durum wheat conducted by Rudmin et al. found that the K₂O content in the glauconite material under investigation decreased by approximately 24% over a single growing season. The authors interpret this as evidence of the gradual release of potassium.
Fig. 1. Change in the relative K₂O content in glauconite over the course of a single season.
Gradual change in K₂O content in glauconite
Relative index: initial K₂O content taken as 100.
Calculated based on data from Rudmin et al., Applied Clay Science, 2019: a decrease of approximately 24% in one season.
This graph does not show the absolute amount of potassium available to the plant; instead, it demonstrates something else: the mineral undergoes gradual changes within the soil.
For the GREENODIN concept, this is a fundamental characteristic.
My goal is not to transform glauconite into a direct equivalent of potassium chloride.
On the contrary, its value may lie precisely in the fact that it acts more slowly and over a longer period, while simultaneously remaining part of the soil’s mineral phase.
Function 3. After-effect instead of a short pulse
The results of a two-year field experiment with oats are even more interesting.
Following a single application of glauconite material at a rate of 200 g/m² (i.e., 2 t/ha), Rudmin, Banerjee, and Makarov observed changes not only during the first growing season but also in the second.
The authors noted a gradual increase in the levels of K, P, ammonium nitrogen, Ca, and Mg in the soil under study. In the second season, the average oat yield in the glauconite-treated plots exceeded that of the control by approximately 10%.
This is particularly interesting in the context of our operational logic:
application → alteration of the soil environment → residual effect → subsequent crop.
In other words, we are gradually shifting from the traditional concept of “fertilizer rate for the current year’s crop” to a different one:
investment in the functional state of the soil over multiple seasons.
This does not mean, however, that just any glauconite applied at any rate will produce such an effect. The authors of the recent review themselves emphasize that the results depend on the mineral’s origin, soil type, the crop, and the application rate.
Function 4. Mineral + organic matter — this is already a different system.
In GREENODIN, glauconite is not intended to function in isolation.
And this is precisely where modern fundamental science offers a crucial explanation.
In a comprehensive review published in *Nature Reviews Earth & Environment*, Kleber and colleagues demonstrate that the mineral-organic matter interface is far from a passive surface.
A range of processes can occur there, including:
- adsorption of organic molecules;
- surface reactions;
- redox processes;
- stabilization of a portion of the organic matter;
- formation of specific microenvironments for microorganisms.
The authors specifically emphasize that sorption should not be viewed as the process’s “endpoint”—organic substances can continue to undergo transformation even after contacting the mineral surface.
For me, this is a vital point.
Because GREENODIN is not simply a model of:
glauconite + separate organic matter + separate bacteria.
The technological significance lies precisely in their interaction.
In the working concept for GREENODIN GREEN, enriched glauconite is combined with organic carbon components—specifically peat and biochar—and beneficial microbiota.
The result is not merely a mixture of materials, but a potentially more complex system:
glauconite ↔ organic matter ↔ biochar ↔ soil solution ↔ microorganisms ↔ root.
Table 1. Role of glauconite in the GREENODIN functional model
| Function | What science confirms | What this means for GREENODIN | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pesticide sorption | Original model experiments | Potential reduction in the mobility of certain organic pollutants | Confirmed for a specific breed and model solutions. |
| Metal sorption | International studies of natural glauconite | Potential for remediation compositions | Confirmed by international experiments |
| Source K | Field research | Gradual contribution to potassium nutrition | Confirmed for specific glauconites. |
| Aftereffect | Two-year field experiments | Potential for prolonged action of the mineral matrix | Confirmed, but depends on the soil. |
| Mineral-organic interface | Fundamental science of soil minerals | Stabilization and transformation of organic matter | A well-substantiated mechanism; GREENODIN tests are needed. |
| Microbial environment | General science of mineral-organic interfaces | Potential microzones for soil biota development | Hypothesis for a specific GREENODIN composition |
| Moisture retention | Literature data depend on the material. | Possible involvement in the regulation of water balance. | Requires quantitative verification for our raw materials. |
This final column is particularly important to me.
A scientific product becomes stronger not when it attempts to declare everything proven, but when it clearly distinguishes between:
what has already been proven → what is substantiated → what still needs to be verified.
Function 5. Glauconite as part of the environment for microbiota
Precision is essential here.
I would not claim that glauconite itself automatically “colonizes the soil with beneficial bacteria.”
These are distinct processes.
However, our modern understanding of soil reveals that mineral surfaces create microenvironments where organic matter, water, and microorganisms interact.
When biochar is added to such a mineral system, the picture becomes even more intriguing.
A global meta-analysis published in *Geoderma* in 2023 demonstrated a generally positive impact of biochar on the genetic richness and diversity of soil microorganisms, although the magnitude and direction of the effect depend on the properties of both the biochar and the soil itself.
Another major meta-analysis in *Environmental Science & Technology*, which aggregated 3,899 observations from 61 primary studies, showed changes in microbial biomass and C and N cycling functions following biochar application. However, the authors also emphasize the need to tailor biochar characteristics to specific needs rather than relying on a “one-size-fits-all” application of a single material.
Thus, for GREENODIN GREEN, my working hypothesis is as follows:
glauconite provides a mineral surface and a source for some elements; the organic component serves as a carbon and humic medium; biochar adds a stable, porous carbon phase; and microorganisms drive the biological cycles of nutrient transformation.
However, the synergy of this specific composition requires verification through a dedicated experiment.
Why glauconite enrichment is important for GREENODIN
Early experiments by Kozub demonstrated that even unbeneficiated quartz-glauconite rock with a glauconite content of up to 40% exhibited sorption activity.
From an economic standpoint, this is a very interesting result.
However, the objective for a next-generation fertilizer is somewhat different.
For a given mass of the finished product, we need to obtain a precisely controllable amount of the functional mineral phase.
Therefore, for GREENODIN GREEN, we are considering the use of beneficiated glauconite. The Institute’s current product description also explicitly highlights this approach.
It makes sense to evaluate beneficiation not based on the principle that “the more glauconite, the better,” but rather against a specific set of indicators:
| Raw material indicator | What is it needed for? |
|---|---|
| Glauconite content, % | Product standardization |
| Quartz and other impurities | Understanding the true active share |
| Total K₂O | Potential potassium reserve |
| Available/Releasable K | Actual agronomic function |
| CEC | Ion-exchange potential |
| BET specific surface area | Characterization of the sorption surface |
| Fe, Mg, and trace elements | Additional mineral potential |
| Granulometry | Reactive surface and manufacturability |
| Heavy metals | Safety |
| Sorption/desorption | Remediation function |
In other words, the glauconite percentage is just the first characteristic.
Two rocks with the same 60% glauconite content can behave differently in the soil.
GREENODIN: fertilizer or soil conditioner?
In the author’s view, this is precisely the issue that requires rethinking today.
Conventional fertilizers are typically evaluated based on the amounts of N, P, and K they supply to the plant.
A different frame of reference is proposed for GREENODIN.
Classic scheme
fertilizer
nutrient element
Root
Harvest
GREENODIN functional diagram
organic-mineral composition
soil solution + mineral surface + organic matter
retention / mobilization / buffering of elements
microbiota and rhizosphere
root system
nutrition + water regime + resilience
yield + residual effect + soil condition
In other words, yield remains an important indicator, but it becomes one of the results rather than the sole criterion.
What do GREENODIN's own studies show?
Here, too, it is necessary to avoid a very tempting but flawed line of reasoning.
There are field studies on GREENODIN that show positive results.
For example, in a 2023 study involving the DKC 3623 corn hybrid, the average yield for the control group was 9.57 t/ha, whereas with the application of GREENODIN GRAY, it was approximately 10.86 t/ha; this represents an increase of 1.29 t/ha, or roughly 13.5%. The report specifies an application rate of 250 kg/ha.
Fig. 2. Corn yield in the GREENODIN GRAY trial, 2023.
Yield of DKC 3623 corn
Average results for the control variant and GREENODIN GRAY.
Source: 2023 Field Study Report. This study evaluated the finished composition of GREENODIN GRAY and not the individual exposure to glauconite.
However, this result cannot be cited as proof of an effect specifically attributable to glauconite.
A complex composition was tested.
This is a crucial distinction.
Similarly, in a 2016 spelt study, the yield was 1.79 t/ha for the control group, 2.24 t/ha for GREENODIN BLACK, and 2.34 t/ha for GREENODIN GRAY. Notably, visual inspection revealed higher soil moisture in the root zone of the GREENODIN GRAY plots.
Once again, while this confirms the potential of GREENODIN’s composite approach, it does not allow the observed effect to be mathematically attributed to any single specific mineral.
That is precisely why the next stage of research on GREENODIN GREEN must be significantly more precise.
How to demonstrate the specific role of glauconite in GREENODIN
I propose structuring the new research program not according to the scheme:
GREENODIN versus control.
That is no longer sufficient.
A factorial experiment is required.
Table 2. Minimum experimental design for GREENODIN GREEN
| Version | Composition | What is being tested |
|---|---|---|
| К0 | Soil without treatment | Baseline control |
| G1 | Glauconite | Effect of the mineral itself |
| G2 | Enriched glauconite | Effect of enrichment |
| O1 | Organic base | Effect of organic matter |
| B1 | Biochar | Carbon/sorption function |
| G+O | Glauconite + organic base | Mineral-organic interaction |
| G+O+B | + biochar | Influence of the carbon matrix |
| G+O+B+M | + microbiota | Complete GREENODIN GREEN system |
I would include at least the following:
- soil: pH, EC, CEC, organic carbon, available K and P, N forms, Ca, Mg, moisture content;
- plant: germination, root mass, height, biomass, yield, elemental composition;
- biology: microbial biomass, specific groups of microorganisms, enzymatic activity;
- remediation: sorption, desorption, and migration of model pollutants;
- timing: after application, end of the first season, start and end of the second season.
Only such a scheme will make it possible to answer the most important question:
what does glauconite alone contribute, and what results from the synergy of the entire GREENODIN complex?
From "fertilizer" to a mineral-biological platform
This is precisely where I see the potential for GREENODIN’s development.
Glauconite need not be the final product or a substitute for all other components.
Its role is different:
to create a long-lasting mineral foundation around which the interactions of organic matter, water, nutrients, and microbiota can be organized.
In this way, GREENODIN gradually evolves from a standard complex fertilizer into a functional organo-mineral platform for the soil.
Table 3. Evolution of the approach
| Stage | Classical understanding | The GREENODIN Approach |
|---|---|---|
| Feeding | Apply NPK | Manage element availability |
| Potassium | Soluble salt | Mineral spring with partially prolonged action |
| Organics | Source C | Part of the organo-mineral system |
| Mineral | Filler | Functional surface |
| Sorption | Remove the substance from the water. | To control its mobility in the soil system |
| Мікроорганізми | Biological product separately | Part of the rhizosphere system |
| Goal | This year's harvest | Yield + soil condition + residual effect |
Why this is particularly relevant today
Agriculture is increasingly encountering the limitations of a model in which soil fertility is maintained primarily through the external application of rapidly soluble inputs.
The problem is not that mineral fertilizers are “bad.” They remain vital tools in modern farming.
The issue arises when we attempt to use them to replace the functioning of the soil itself.
Soil must:
- retain water;
- facilitate ion exchange;
- store organic matter;
- support microbial processes;
- supply nutrients to roots;
- buffer environmental changes;
- limit the mobility of certain toxic substances.
Fundamental research into mineral-organic interfaces demonstrates that the interaction between minerals, organic matter, and microorganisms largely determines the long-term functioning of the soil.
Therefore, a more strategically significant question is not:
“How much potassium is in a single granule?”
but rather:
“What processes does this granule trigger and sustain in the soil after application?”
Vision of the role of glauconite in GREENODIN
We propose considering it in five roles simultaneously.
Mineral sorbent
ion-exchange mineral phase
slow-release source of potassium and associated elements
surface for the formation of organo-mineral interactions
a structural component of a more complex system in which organic matter, biochar, water, microorganisms, and roots interact
And perhaps it is the fifth function that will prove to be the most important in the future.
Initial studies of glauconite gave us grounds to regard it as a natural sorbent.
Recent international publications have broadened this perspective: glauconite is being investigated as a metal sorbent, a slow-release potassium source, a soil conditioner, and a potential base for new composite fertilizers.
The next step for GREENODIN is to move beyond utilizing the properties of a single mineral toward engineering a functional soil environment.
In this approach, glauconite is not intended to do all the work on its own.
Its role is to serve as a key, long-term component of the system:
GLAUCONITE → MINERAL MATRIX → ORGANIC MATTER → MICROBIOTA → RHIZOSPHERE → PLANT → SOIL RESTORATION.
That is why I believe it is promising to speak not merely of “glauconite-based fertilizers,” but of managed organo-mineral-biological systems for restoring and maintaining soil functions.
And GREENODIN GREEN is set to become the practical platform for testing this concept.